Dura Europos

Named Europos by the Greeks and Dura by the Romans, the history of Dura-Europos is founded on powerful cultural and religious crosscurrents of late antiqu

ity. Located in modern day Syria, the ancient city overlooks the Euphrates River and is protected by cliffs on three sides. The fourth side looks out across a flat steepe toward the ancient oasis Palmyra. The location of the city was ideal for strategic control over the manufacture and trade of the rich Mesopotamia agricultural lands nearby. Although superficially a Greek city, foreign imperial powers based in the Mediterranean or Iran dominated the city politically and wielded heavy cultural influence, while Syro-Mesopotamian people and nomadic caravans flocked

to the urban center. Art Historically, the city is of profound significance for in its walls are preserved remains of more than a dozen different cult buildings and shrines of the polytheistic religions of the Near East and the Mediterranean. Furthermore, excavations have revealed rare early worship centers for the monotheistic creeds of Christianity and Judaism, long before acceptance by the Roman state.

Macedonian and Parthian Rule

A Macedonian Greek of the Seleucid Empire around 300 BCE founded Dura-Europos, sometime after Alexander the Great’s death. The initial city planning was laid out in a Hellenistic design with a central agora and marketplace. By the end of the second century BCE, Dura-Europos was in the hands of the Parthian Empire. Both the Macedonians and Parthian were tolerant of other religions and cultures, allowing for early hybridization of many different traditions, cultures, and art. Over a hundred parchment and papyrus fragments and many inscriptions dated to the period have revealed texts in Greek Palmyrenean, Hebrew, Hatrian, Safaitic, and Pahlavi. Some the religious buildings of this period exemplify the blending of cultures with Greek deities assuming more Semitic or Eastern representation.

Limestone cult relief of two godesses

Roman Rule

The Roman emperor, Trajan, captured the city in 115 CE, erecting a ceremonial arch outside the city, but Dura-Europors returned to Parthian control shortly thereafter. Marcus Aurelius reseized the city in 165 CE and established a permanent garrison, transforming Dura-Europos into a frontier fort. During the Roman occupation, the city experienced a number of important changes. In order to accommodate the Roman military population, many temples and shrines were demolished or built over. Four new religious buildings were introduced in this period: a temple to Jupiter Dolichenus, the Mithraem, the Jewish synagogue, and the Christian domus ecclesia.

Map of the city with location details

Sasanian Victory

Dura-Europos fell in 256 CE to the Sasanian Empire, under King Shapur, heirs to the Parthian Empire. While there is no written record of how the siege of Dura-Europos unfolded, the Sasanian victory is a critical fixed point in the history of the city, because the Romans fortified the town so extensively from the anticipated siege that many of the buildings were buried by an earthen wall and left intact. The actual battles between the Romans and Sasanians also have offered remarkable material for art historians; both armies built extensive underground trenches, breaches, and mines that have preserved military equipment and skeletons of soldiers. After the conquest, the city was abandoned altogether transitioning into “clear zone” between the Romans and Sasanians; nothing was built over it and no later building programs obscured the architectonic features of the city, hence the popular name “Pompeii of the desert.”

“Re-Discovery” by Indian Troops under British Command

Although the existence of Dura-Europos was known in various literary sources, it was not “rediscovered” until the Arab Revolt in the aftermath of World War I. On March 30, 1920, a soldier digging a trench uncovered brilliantly fresh wall paintings. Archeological digs immediately began. World War II intervened, halting all excavations and publishing of findings. Since 1986, excavations have resumed under a joint Franco-Syrian effort.

Palmyra Gate

The House Church

The Christian house church at Dura Europos was the earliest house church discovered by archaeologists. Like the synagogue nearby, layers of dirt used to defend against Persian siege protected it. Yale University dismantled and reconstructed the structure in the 1930’s, so only the foundation remains at the actual site.

Ruins of the house church and possible baptismal pool

The church is extremely important to Christian history, because it proves that some parts of the Roman world tolerated Christianity alongside other religions. Although the early church faced severe persecution at certain times, this church proves that religious persecution did not permeate all societies in the Empire.

House Church: Structure and Organization

The house church was set up in a upper class home typical of the Roman Empire. Its structure consisted of a large house surrounding a courtyard, with Christians gathering in the center atrium. A pool in the middle of the atrium was used as a baptistery, and the raised table to the side was where the bishop would reside over the Eucharist.

Here, the reconstruction at Yale University shows what the church probably looked like.

Layout of the church

House Church: Murals

The painted murals of the house church date from 232 and 256 CE. They are excellent examples of early Christian art and portray not only popular themes and stories, but also the earliest depiction of Jesus scholars have identified.

Healing of the Paralytic

Jesus and Peter Walk on Water

Both of the above murals show popular scenes of miracles performed by Jesus Christ, and are among the earliest images of Him.

This mural, depicting the popular image of “The Good Shepherd” hangs over the front of the baptistery. This image combines popular Biblical imagery with Roman symbols of shepherding already in use, alluding again to the integration of Roman and Christian culture during this time in early Christian history.

The Mithraeum

Mithras was the ancient god worshipped by the ancestors of the Persians and Hindus. He was the god of light, protector of truth; he was said to have one hundred eyes and one hundred ears watching the world constantly and therefore could not be deceived—as such, he was often invoked in oaths, in the punishment of perjurers, and in pledging the fulfillment of contracts. He was also the war-ally of the faithful and the god who granted monarchs victory.

He was worshipped by the sacrifice of cattle and flying birds, libations of haoma (an intoxicating juice) and ritual prayers. His temples were most frequently built in caves.

Mithraism disseminated through the Roman Empire via armies—native recruits from Cappadocia and Commagene (modern-day Turkey) were frequently shipped elsewhere in the Empire, far away from their homes, taking their religion with them. As a god of warriors and victory, Mithras became a popular deity among the armies of the Roman Empire.

Mithraeum: Relief Sculptures

The Mithraeum at Dura Europos is situated on the outer wall of the city between the 23^rd and 24^th gates. It was founded around 168 CE and is different for a mithraeum, as it wasn’t built into a cave as other mithraea often are. It was rebuilt twice, once around 210 CE to make the sanctuary larger, and for the last time around 240 CE, possibly to add a new, cave-like roof.

At the Mithraeum in Dura Europos, there are two bas-relief sculptures featuring Mithras in a tauroctone scene (killing the bull), which is the chief cult scene of Mithraism.

The story of Mithras’ life says that he caught the wild bull and brought it to the cave where he lived; it later escaped and he was commanded by the Sun (Ormazd) to hunt it down and kill it. When he killed the bull, herbs and plants sprang from its body, wheat came from its spinal cord, vines came from its blood, and all of the other animals of the world came from its seed.

The bottom relief is the older one, dedicated to the god by an army officer named Ethpeni in 168 CE. The top relief is slightly newer, dedicated by a new army officer named Zenobios in 170 CE. It is a larger composition that contains an arch at the top with figures of the zodiac underneath; alongside the tauroctone scene are suspected figures of the dedicant and possibly his family.

Mithraeum: Paintings

On the outside of the niche where these reliefs were housed, there were a number of paintings, the biggest being paintings of the prophets of Mithras. On the wall beside the niche was once a painting of Mithras the hunter, accompanied by his trusty dog and the snake.

The Synagogue

The Synagogue was discovered in the 1930's at Dura Europos in modern Syria, and is one of the oldest synagogues in the world. It was ruined by Persian attack in A.D. 256.

Ruins of the Dura Europos Synagogue

Synagogue: Reconstructed

It was discovered in the 1930's and Yale University reconstructed

the Dura Europos frescos from the ancient synagogue.

Fragments of the ceiling paintings from the early building

Putting a roof on the synagogue (1932-1933)

Synagogue: Interior

The Synagogue includes a forecourt and house of assembly

with fresco walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah Shrine.

Floor plan of the Synagogue in relation to the rest of Dura Europos

Torah Shrine with detail

Synagogue: Torah Shrine Paintings

The focal element in the room was the Torah Shrine in the western wall,

which faced Jerusalem. The paintings on the Shrine depict many narrative

scenes, including Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt and several others.

Worship of

the Golden Calf

Moses and the Exodus

Also the paintings showed important events of Jewish history such as the anointing of David as king, and the destruction of the Philistines temple by the Ark of the Covenant.

David Anointed King by Samuel

There are four large standing figures, Abraham,

uncertain figure, Moses, Ezra, in pairs at either side above the Torah shrine.

The Dura Europos Group

This tour of Dura Europos was brought to you by...

Emily Henderson: Introduction and Overview

Beth Miller: Mithraeum

Emily Stevenson: Christian House Church + Website

Wendy Jung: Jewish Synagogue

Early Medieval Art History

Anne McClannan

Portland State University: Fall 2009